Faisal I of Iraq Read online

  14 Lawrence and Amir Abdul ah in Jerusalem, 1921,

  after the Cairo Conference where Britain’s empire in

  the Middle East final y took shape.

  15 British troops entering Baghdad in 1918.

  16 Ja’far Abu al-Timmen, a key leader of the

  nationalist opposition in Iraq. His relations with

  Faisal were correct.

  17 Faisal with Zaid in Baghdad, 1921.

  18 Coronation as King of Iraq, 1921. The throne chair was inappropriately large, dwarfing Faisal.

  19 Sir Percy Cox, first high

  commissioner in Iraq. His plans for

  British control over Iraq through

  indirect rule were resisted by both

  Faisal and the nationalist opposition.

  20 Grand Ayatol ah Abul Hassan al-Isfahani, supreme leader of Iraq’s Shia Muslims, at prayer in Najaf, Iraq.

  21 Faisal, Baghdad, 1923. Gertrude Bell (r), and Saiyid Hussein Afnan, cabinet secretary (l).

  22 Faisal with his son Ghazi, 1924. Faisal’s relationship

  with Ghazi was troubled. He had his doubts about Ghazi’s

  ability to rule Iraq.

  23 Faisal with Harry Sinderson in 1928.

  24 ‘Abd al-Muhsin al-Sa’adoun, many times

  prime minister of Iraq under Faisal. Sa’adoun,

  a close al y of the British, beset by personal and

  political problems, was ultimately driven to take

  his own life.

  25 Sir Henry Dobbs, longest

  serving high commissioner in

  Iraq. His relations with Faisal were

  often acrimonious.

  26 Faisal reviewing detachment of Iraqi cavalry, 1929. Faisal believed an effective army was essential to securing the nascent Iraqi state and his own power.

  27 Faisal in London, 1930. Faisal enjoyed his European forays away from the serial crises in Iraq.

  28 Faisal and Nuri, 1930.

  29 Faisal with Askari at SOAS, London University, 1930. Faisal was keen to expand the number of Iraqis receiving higher education in Europe and the US.

  30 Faisal in 1930.

  31 Yasin al-Hashimi, an ambitious but enigmatic

  figure who served as minister and prime minister

  under Faisal.

  32 Faisal with ‘Abd al-Aziz of Saudi Arabia

  on board HMS Lupin, 1930. The two kings

  agreed to patch up the differences between

  their two rival dynasties of Arabia.

  33 Faisal and brothers, ‘Abdul ah

  (c) and Ali (l), Baghdad, 1932.

  Faisal respected Ali and often

  sought his counsel. But his

  relations with Abdul ah were more

  guarded and sometimes testy.

  34 Official photo, 1932.

  35 Nuri al-Sa’id, a brilliant soldier,

  politician and statesman was a close

  col aborator with Faisal.

  36 Faisal at celebrations of Iraq’s independence and acceptance into League of Nations, 6 October 1932. This was the culmination of Faisal’s struggle to achieve Iraqi independence.

  37 Unveiling in Baghdad of an equestrian statue of Faisal by Italian sculptor Canonica, 1932. It pointed towards Damascus and to Faisal’s lost Syrian kingdom and the hopes for Arab unity.

  38 Faisal (in white suit and sedara) in Jerusalem, 1933. Huge crowds of well-wishers greeted him throughout his trip to Palestine.

  39 (above) Faisal with ‘Abdul ah in

  Jerusalem, 1933. Faisal was received by

  ecstatic crowds.

  40 Faisal at Gleneagles, Scotland, 1933,

  conversing with Ja’far al-Askari.

  41 Faisal in Switzerland, 1933, with his ubiquitous cigarettes. His chain smoking contributed to his premature death.

  42 Faisal in Bulle, Switzerland, 1933. Lady Paget, on the left.

  43 Faisal at the racecourse in Berne, 1933. Faisal was an authority on Arabian horses.

  44 Faisal at lunch in Interlaken, Switzerland, a few hours before his death. His earlier convalescence in Switzerland was cut short by the Assyrian crisis.

  45 The funeral of Faisal in Baghdad, September 1933. At the time, it was the largest funeral in the history of the modern Middle East.

  M A P S

  page

  1. The Ottoman Empire, 1798–1923

  2

  2. The Ottoman Empire, 1914

  42

  3. The Hijaz railroad, 1914

  106

  4. The Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916

  145

  5. The Arab government of Syria (OETE), 1918–1920

  228

  6. Administrative divisions of Ottoman Iraq

  338

  7. The Kingdom of Iraq, 1932

  470

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  K E Y P E R S O N A L I T I E S

  Sharifian family

  Faisal ibn al-Hussein – king of Syria, king of Iraq, third son of Hussein ibn Ali.

  Hussein ibn Ali – amir of Mecca and instigator of the Arab Revolt.

  Ali ibn al-Hussein – eldest son of Hussein ibn Ali, later king of the Hijaz. Acted as Faisal’s confidant and regent.

  Abdullah ibn al-Hussein – second son of Hussein ibn Ali, later amir of Transjordan.

  Zaid ibn al-Hussein – youngest son of Hussein ibn Ali. Half-brother to Faisal. Assisted Faisal in Arab Revolt, and in Arab government in Syria.

  Iraqis

  Ja’far al-‘Askari – former Ottoman officer; resisted the British in Cyrenaica; senior commander of regular units of Arab Revolt. Many times minister, prime minister and

  ambassador under Faisal.

  Rashid ‘Ali al-Gailani – from a branch of the al-Naqib family. Ambitious and inveterate intriguer. Last of Faisal’s prime ministers.

  Yasin al-Hashimi – rose to become an Ottoman general and stayed loyal to the Ottoman cause. Joined the Arab government of Faisal in Damascus. Minister and prime minister in Iraq under Faisal. Enigmatic and ambitious.

  Grand Ayatollah Abul Hassan al-Isfahani – most senior ayatollah in Iraq. Issued fatwa that forbad participation in elections for constituent assembly. Chose self-exile to Iran in solidarity with al-Khalisi, but returned in 1924 eschewing formal politics.

  Ali Jawdat – former Ottoman officer; early recruit to Arab Revolt. Commanded

  Syrian forces in the Beqa’a Valley; later provincial governor and minister under

  Faisal.

  Shaikh Mahdi al-Khalisi – powerful ayatollah from Kadhimain. Anti-British and often hostile to Faisal. Deported to Iran in 1923 by al-‘Sa’adoun, which triggered self-exile of senior Shi’a clerics.

  ‘Abd al-Muhsin al-Sa’adoun – Istanbul-trained lawyer from powerful southern Iraq tribe.

  Prime minister, but stayed aloof from Faisal. Instigated confrontation with Shi’a

  religious hierarchy. Favoured by the British. Committed suicide in 1929.

  ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Naqib – head of a powerful religious order and a senior Baghdad

  notable. First prime minister of Iraq. Opposed and then reconciled to Faisal as

  king.

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  p e r s o n a l i t i e s

  Nuri al-Sa’id – statesman. Former Ottoman officer; saw action in the First Balkan War, member of the secret society al-‘Ahd; joined Arab Revolt. A founder of the Iraq army and later minister and prime minister under Faisal.

  Naji al-Suwaidi – from a prominent Baghdad family. Minister and prime minister under Faisal.

  Ja’far Abu al-Timmen – from a prominent Baghdad mercantile family. Strongly nationalist and anti-British. Had ambivalent relations with Faisal.

  Ottomans

  Sultan ‘Abd al-
Hamid – sultan/caliph of the Ottoman Empire; deposed in 1909.

  Enver Pasha – one of the triumvirate that ruled the Ottoman Empire in its final

  years.

  Jamal Pasha – supreme commander of Ottoman forces in Syria for most of the First World War.

  Mustafa Kemal – commander of Ottoman forces in Syria in the last stages of the war.

  Founder of the modern republic of Turkey.

  Syrian/Palestinian/Lebanese

  ‘Awni ‘Abd al-Hadi – secretary to the Arab delegation in Paris. Part of Faisal’s entourage and adviser; later an important figure in the Palestine national movement.

  Rustum Haidar – Faisal’s friend and confidant; later minister in Iraq.

  Ahmad Qadri – Tahsin’s brother. Early member of the Arab secret society al-Fatat. Adviser to Faisal.

  Tahsin Qadri – Faisal’s aide-de-camp and companion.

  Ali Ridha al-Rikabi – military governor of Syria under Faisal.

  British

  Edmund Allenby – commander of Egyptian Expeditionary Force and allied forces in Syria and Palestine.

  Gertrude Bell – oriental secretary to Percy Cox, later founded the Iraq Museum.

  Championed Faisal for king of Iraq.

  Winston Churchill – secretary of state for the colonies, presided over the Cairo conference of 1921, which set Britain’s Middle East policy.

  Gilbert Clayton – intelligence officer, later high commissioner in Iraq.

  Kinahan Cornwallis – director of Arab Bureau in Cairo. A friend of Faisal and later ambassador to Iraq.

  Percy Cox – senior political officer in Iraq during the war in Mesopotamia and first high commissioner in Iraq.

  George, Lord Curzon – foreign secretary; resisted independence for Syria.

  Henry Dobbs – longest-serving high commissioner in Iraq. Had troubled relations with Faisal.

  Francis Humphrys – last high commissioner in Iraq until independence.

  David Lloyd George – prime minister in the First World War; one of the Big Four at the Paris Peace Conference.

  T. E. Lawrence – Faisal’s adviser and organiser of guerrilla forces in Arab Revolt; championed Faisal at the Paris Peace Conference and Cairo conference of 1921.

  Chaim Weizmann – scientist and Zionist leader.

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  French

  Robert de Caix – influenced French policy in the Levant.

  Georges Clemenceau – prime minister. Entered into an abortive deal on Syria with Faisal.

  Qaddour ibn Ghabrit – Moroccan translator and interlocutor with the Faisal-led Arab delegation in Paris.

  Henri Gouraud – high commissioner in Syria and Lebanon; implacable foe of Syrian

  independence.

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  C H RO N O L O G Y O F E V E N T S

  1517 Ottoman Empire assumes suzerainty over the Hijaz; confirms office of the sharif/amir of Mecca.

  1876 Promulgation of Ottoman constitution. Accession of Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid.

  1878 ‘Abd al-Hamid prorogues Ottoman parliament, suspends constitution and establishes autocracy.

  1883 Birth of Faisal, third son of Hussein ibn Ali, in Ta’if.

  1883–1890 Faisal raised by the Bedouin tribe of Bani Abadila.

  1893 Faisal joins his family in exile in Istanbul.

  1900 Construction of the Hijaz railroad begins, linking the province to the rest of the Ottoman Empire.

  1904 Faisal marries his cousin, Huzaima, daughter of Sharif Nasir ibn Ali. She bears him four daughters and one son, Ghazi, later king of Iraq.

  1908 Young Turk revolution restores constitutional rule in Ottoman Empire.

  1908 Faisal’s father, Hussein ibn Ali, installed as sharif of Mecca by order of Sultan

  ‘Abd al-Hamid. Faisal returns to the Hijaz.

  1909 Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid deposed after the failure of a counter-coup.

  1911–1912 Faisal commands Sharifian and Ottoman forces battling the Idrisi in ‘Asir province.

  1912 Faisal elected to Ottoman chamber of deputies as member for Jeddah.

  1912 Outbreak of First Balkan War. Ottoman Empire loses most of its Balkan territories.

  1914 Ottoman Empire enters First World War on side of the Central Powers.

  1914 Anglo-Indian forces land in southern Iraq, capturing the city of Basra.

  1915 Faisal visits Damascus and is inducted into the Arab secret society al-Fatat.

  1915 Sharif Hussein enters into correspondence with Sir Henry McMahon, high commissioner in Egypt, regarding an Arab revolt against the Turks.

  1916 Faisal slips from Damascus to Medina, in time for the outbreak of the revolt in June. He leads tribal forces in the vicinity of Medina.

  1917 Faisal commands the field forces of the Arab Revolt. Capture of Wejh; Fall of Aqaba to Faisal’s army.

  1917 Baghdad captured by Anglo-Indian forces under Sir Stanley Maude in March.

  1917–1918 Intensification of the revolt; fighting throughout Transjordan; attacks on the Hijaz railroad.

  1918 Faisal’s forces enter Damascus on 1 October amidst scenes of jubilation.

  1918 Ottoman Empire accepts armistice on 30 October; Arab government led by Faisal established in Damascus.

  1918 Faisal leaves Syria in November for the Paris Peace Conference.

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  1919 Faisal presents the Arab case for independence to the Council of Ten in February.

  1919 Faisal returns to Syria in April.

  1919 Convening of the Syrian Congress in June.

  1919 King–Crane Commission arrives in Damascus in July.

  1919 British decision to evacuate forces from Syria by November.

  1919 Faisal returns to Britain and France in September.

  1920 Faisal returns to Syria in January, with an outline agreement with Clemenceau.

  1920 Syrian Congress reconvenes in March, declares independence of Greater Syria and proclaims Faisal king of Syria.

  1920 Allies declare Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine as mandates of France and Britain at San Remo Conference in April.

  1920 Henri Gouraud, French high commissioner for Lebanon and Syria, issues ultimatum to Faisal and Arab government.

  1920 French forces under Gouraud rout the army of Faisal’s Arab government at the Battle of Maysaloun on 24 July; Faisal driven into exile.

  1920 Major tribal uprising challenges British rule in Iraq from July to October; put down at great cost.

  1920 Faisal arrives in London in December, after several months in northern Italy.

  1921 British officials broach subject of the throne of Iraq with Faisal.

  1921 Cairo conference in March, under Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill, formalises Britain’s policies in Iraq and the Middle East.

  1921 Faisal lands in Basra in June.

  1921 Faisal enthroned as king of Iraq after a plebiscite.

  1922 Faisal falls seriously ill in August. Anglo-Iraqi Treaty signed in October, formalising Britain’s role in Iraq.

  1922 ‘Abd al-Muhsin al-Sa’adoun appointed prime minister in November.

  1923 Deportation of Ayatollah al-Khalisi in June; self-exile of leading Iraq-based ayatollahs to Iran.

  1924 Constituent Assembly convened in March, ratifies Anglo-Iraqi Treaty and promulgates Iraq’s constitution.

  1925 League of Nations awards the Ottoman province of Mosul to Iraq in

  December.

  1925 Collapse of the kingdom of the Hijaz; Faisal’s family joins him in
Baghdad.

  1926 Death of Gertrude Bell in July.

  1926 Outbreak of sectarian tensions in Iraq, partly defused by Faisal.

  1927 Faisal makes first bid for outright independence for Iraq, rebuffed by Britain.

  1929 Suicide of ‘Abd al-Muhsin al-Sa’adoun.

  1930 Nuri al-Sa’id appointed prime minister; New Anglo-Iraqi Treaty signed in November, paving the way to independence.

  1931 General strike targeting the Nuri government.

  1931 Faisal composes wide-ranging memorandum on the condition of Iraq.

  1932 Iraq achieves independence and is granted admission to the League of Nations in October.

  1933 Rashid ‘Ali appointed prime minister in March.

  1933 Faisal travels to Britain in June on official state visit.

  1933 Assyrian crisis breaks out in July.

  1933 Faisal leaves Switzerland for Iraq in late July to handle Assyrian crisis.

  1933 Faisal returns to Switzerland in early September to continue medical

  treatment.

  1933 Faisal dies in Berne, Switzerland on 8 September 1933, aged fifty.

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  P RO L O G U E